Who is the Indian-Austronesian Maharaja against who the Zanj have to fight and who owns such a big empire?

 

Taken from: Who is Maha-Raja of Persian Texts by Daryoosh Akbarzadeh (Journal of Indian Ocean Studies 2013 p60-71).

 

According to Daryoosh Akbarzadeh: Rajaraja the Great, who was a Chola emperor (reigned c. 985–1014). As well as his successor Rajendra Chola I (r. 1014 – 1044) who was also called Rajendra the Great. He annexed Srivijaya (which controlled the straits of Malacca) in 1025.

From the first one we know that he extended his dominions (south and east India etc..) to include the Maldives islands. So the Maharaja was really the neighbour of the Zanj. The Maldives became independent from the Chola under their own king Koimala (r. 1117-1141) who unified the Maldives under his rule.

Note: As Al Masudi (916) and Abu Zaid al Hassan (916) are among the early ones to talk about the powerful Maharaja it must have been the kingdom of Srivijaya which was earlier dominating the straits and whose king styled himself also Maharaja that was the Maharaja in the earlier texts.

For an article that defends the thesis that it earlier was the Maharaja of Srivijaya see: The Empire of the Maharaja, King of the Mountains and Lord of the Isles by C. O. Blagde (Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society No. 81 (MARCH 1920), pp. 23-28)

For more information on the Chola domination of the maldives: Note on the Early History of the Maldives by Naseema Mohamed. (Archipel 2005 pp. 7-14).

These facts are independent from the immigration of Austronesian people to Madagascar (and bits to East Africa). But it is in this period (when the Maldives were part of an empire that stretched to include parts of India and Indonesia) that the Arab authors are mostly detailing the links of East Africa with the Austronesian world (and India).

Abu Mashar al-Balkhi (885)

For East Africa he is the first Geographer. And he does nor make the mistake to make Africa stretch to the East; but has it going South: “Whoever wishes (to reach) Zang makes for the west of it (the Sea of India), until he reaches the place in Zang that he wants.” He also gives two routes to reach Austronesia from East Africa; the northern and the southern (south of Madagascar) which because there is only six hours of sunlight is hardly used. 

 

Buzurg ibn Shahriyar Persia (Kitab aja'ib al-Hind) (955)

Sailors tale 117: This is the most famous mention of the maritime expedition of the king of Zabag towards the coast of East Africa, at the Zang.

Sailors tale 33; 35; 119 are about the giant bird Roc (from Madagascar).

 

Abu Imran Musa ibn Rabah al-Awsi al-Sirafi: Al-sahih min ahbar al-bihar wa-aga’ibiha (978)

This is the name of the real author of Buzurg’s book.

Mention of Waqwaq people in Aden and Zeila.

One more war against Zang.

 

Hudud Al-'Alam (The Limits of The World) (982) Persia

The Country of Zangistan and its towns: ………. Enmity reigns between them and the Abyssinians and Zabaj.

 

Al-Biruni (1050) (Teareikh al-India)

The island of Alwakwak belongs to the Kumair islands ….. a people the colour of whom is whitish. They are of short stature and of a build like that of the Turks. They practise the religion of the Hindus, …. Some of the inhabitants of the Wakwak island are of black colour. In our countries there is a great demand for them as slaves.

…… a man who had visited Sufala, in the country of the Negroes, ……………. The reason why in particular Somanath has become so famous is that it was a harbour for seafaring people, and a station for those who went to and fro between Sufala in the country of the Zanj and China…………..  (What he here describes is one of the routes the Austronesians used for their travel to Madagascar and East Africa; he even meets a man in India who had been already in Sufala)

 

Al-Sijzi (1020) Kitab al qiranat wa tahawil sini l’ alam

Section IX mentions the Habasha and their fight with Hind and Zanj.

 

Kitab Ghara'ib al-funun wa-mulah al-'uyun (1050AD) written in Egypt

The islands of the Waq Waq. Their inhabitants engage in piracy.

 

Ishaq b. al-Hasan b. Abi'l-Husayn al-Zayyat; Dhikr al-aqalim wakhtilafuha (d1058) from Spain.

Among the cities of al-Hind is Zabay, a large city, with a wall and four gates. Its king resides in a city called Salḥan, at a distance of 20 days, and its inhabitants war with those of al-Zany.

 

Ali ibn Ahmad Asadi: Garshasp-name (1066) (History of Garsasp) Tus in Iraq.

This rather early epic (1066) still shows an Indian Ocean in which there are strong links between the East Coast of Africa, especially Madagascar and the Indonesian world. There is also the since ever close link with India. This link is so close that the author makes a Zang army arrive in India to support the Maharaja. And that de defeated Bahu’s son can easily return to Zangbar and is welcomed there. (Meaning he was there before). One verse in itself gives proof that in fact it was a colonisation with permanent settlement in East Africa (or Madagascar) where Bahu also received high office.

 

Abu Ubayd Al Bakri: Kitab al Masalik al Mamalik (1067) (Book of Roads and Countries ) Spain.

Some sea traders … I mean Al-Zenj mention white ostrich eggs, but the eggs of ostriches are only a percentage of the proportion of those eggs: This can be eggs from the Roc on Madagascar.

 

Al-Awhadi (11th century) Kitab al-Hadaya wa al-Tuhaf

Twice gigantic (snake) eggs are mentioned to belong to the Sultan of Egypt. (= eggs from the Roc)

 

Li Kung-Lin (d1106): Foreign and Strange Lands N-Sung Painter

Drawing of an embassy from K'un lun Ts'eng K'i country is given with mention of the Roc bird and the slave trade.

 

Osman Mokhtari (1106); Shahriyarname

This rather early epic (1106) totally in verses is important for the History of East Africa. It still shows an Indian Ocean in which there are strong links between the East Coast of Africa, especially Madagascar and the Indonesian world (Sarandip). See Chapter 24 in which the defeated Arjang Shah humbly askes the ruler of Zanzibar to send help and mentions an agreement they had on reciprocal help. 

 

Al Idrisi (1150) (Kitab Ruyar)

In section seven it is mentioned:

The inhabitants of Zabaj (or Djawaga) call at Zanj in both large and small ships (zawariq wa marakib kubar) and trade their merchandise with them, as they understand each other's language. It is generally accepted that this was the Malagasy language; the now official language of Madagascar. For this also see: The Arab Geographers and the East African Coast by J. Spencer Trimingham p126.

In section eight; the iron trade of the Austronesian people with East Africa and Madagascar is handled. Most of this iron must have come from Madagascar. See my webpage:  Note of the East African Steel Industry as described by Edrisi.

Island of Comor (Komor): also in section eight, Idrisi gives a description of a society in the south east Asian islands with capital Malay and betel leaves as an important product.

And in Sayuna were people of Hind living. I think these were also Austronesian people.

In section nine of the first clime is noted they (the ones coming from Austronesia (+India) as well as the ones from Qumr) traded with Sofala and were well received there. Here no mention of war or enslaving. He puts the East African coast at one day sailing from Qumr.

 

Mohammad ebn Mahmud ebn Ahmad Tusi; Aja'eb al-Makhluqat va Ghara'eb al-Mojudat (1160)

P230 and p556 indicate that Zabay (in Indonesia) and Zanzibar are neighbouring countries. This is most likely a result from the colonisation of Madagascar in previous centuries by people from those islands.

 

Khaqani: (One of his Poems) (d 1190) (Tabriz)

(About First Maharaja of India to establish a War Fleet in about 850)

He discrowned Mah-Raja of Zang and plunder was portion of Tamghach-Khan.

 

Hafez-e Sirazi (d1390) Divan (Poetry)

Not alone from Europe thee tribute, did they bring; For from Zang thee tribute the Mahraj sent.

(He wrote this centuries after the facts)

 

Ch'en Yuan-Ching: Shih-Lin Kuang-Chi (late12 century)

K’un-lun-ts’eng-chi

They have a large bird Peng that blocks out the sun (when flying over). Some people pick up their plumes, the cut pipe can be used as a bucket. The wild people are as black as ink, they catch and sell slaves which is a flourishing business.

 

Yakut al Hamawi (1220) Kitab Mu'jam al-buldan.

Vol5 p397: Description of the island and trade + “Each king makes war on the other.”: The Austronesian invasion is over, new arrivals from the African continent make society unstable.

 

Chao Ju-Kua (1226) Chu-fan-chih or Zhufan zhi

Description of the island its trade the Roc and the slave trade.

 

Ibn-al Mujawir(1232)(Tarikh al-Mustabsir)

p137-138

Founding of Aden: When the empire of the pharaohs came to an end, this place (Aden) became deserted in consequence. The peninsula was inhabited only by fishermen who plied their craft in the neighboring waters. They lived there for a long time, provided by Allah with the things needful for their material life. This lasted until the arrival of the people of Al-Komr its ships carrying a great number of men. These took possession of the peninsula, expelled the fishermen by force, and established themselves on the heights of Jebel Ahhmar (the red mountain), Hukkat and Jebel Munzhir, which dominate the buildings of the port. The mountains built by this people exist to this day; their construction is durable, being built with stone and cement obtained from the valleys and mountains of this country.

The poet says:

As for me, weep copiously; for their houses have become empty,

And the leader of their camels has departed.

The anguish of separation makes me mad.

I stand on their habitations raving about them and asking:-

O houses; have you no news of them?

Return me an answer quickly.

It was answered me from the houses wailing and crying:-

Weep blood, O neglectful one;

The caravans have departed.

My slave girl is with them: in elegance and qualities perfect;

In face and form rose-like and thorn-like.

p138-139

These people, sailing from Al-Komr in convoy, reached Aden in a single monsoon. Ibn Al-Mujawir says that these people are dead, their power ended, and the route closed by which they came. There is nobody left who has knowledge of the maritime activities of this people or can tell under what conditions they lived and what they did.

Ibn Al-Mujawir says: From Aden to Mogadishu one monsoon (mawsim) (is required to perform the voyage); from Mogadishu to Kilwa a second monsoon (mawsim) is requisite, and from Kilwa to Al-Komr a third.

Formerly these people (of Al Komr) were accustomed to perform the three seasons (or monsoons) journey in a single monsoon; one ship actually performed the voyage from Al-Komr to Aden in this way in the year 626 A.H. (1228-9 AD); sailing from Al-Komr and bound for Kilwa, the vessel came to anchor at Aden.

Their ships have outriggers because the seas (of Al-Komr) are narrow, shallow and difficult of navigation on account of the currents.

When the power of these people became enfeebled, the Barabar (Arabians of the neighbouring country) who had come to live among them, (rose and ) overpowered them, driving them out.

 

Ibn Said al Maghribi (1250) Kitab Djoughrafiya fi l’ aqalim al Sab (Spain)

-Mentions Qumr and the channel of Qumr (sea between Africa and Madagascar) his towns and rivers on the island are not from Madagascar.

-Islands of Mend …… The most special is called the island of Kiloua …… The Mend people are from the same race as those of India and Send, but way less known then their racial brothers. Ibn Fathima says that they were beaten by the Zendj, and pushed a lot of them back to Send, and that the ones of Mend that remained on the islands remained there as rayas (here meaning servs).

About this war in which the Africa Zendj drove the Indian Mend back to their homeland nothing is known. Charles Guillain p272 concludes Zendj is a mistake and should be Indians. My idea is more that this might be part of the colonising wars from the African Zendj against the Austronesian settlers who had taken over Madagascar and several other places and islands. (see Buzurg 955). The Bantu expansion in East Africa was going strong now.

-One of the towns in this section, who are on the island of al-Qoumr- an island wide and large and of which it is said 4 months long and 20 some days wide- is Lirana. Ibn Fatima says he visited it and that it is from the Muslims as Maqdachou. Its people come of all places. It is a place for loading and off-loading; its nobles who make up the government are under the king of Malay.

According to Gill Shepherd (The Making of the Swahili: A View From the Southern End; Paideuma, 1982) Lirana is ‘al-Iharana’ also known as Vohemar, harbour in Northern Madagascar.

 

Aladua Ralakatibu (1250) Khutba

This text talks about more wars against the Zanj by the Muslims in Madagascar. And according to their prayer victory seems not certain. This also might be a war against the newcomers, the Bantu, emigrating from the African continent. Another mention (but unsure) of this type of war is found in Ibn Said (1250) in which the Zendj chase the Indians from the Island of Mend.

 

Marco Polo (1295) De mirabilibus mundi.

From his writing the name Madagascar originated by mistake. His description of Madagascar is a description of Mogadishu, which name by copyists got deformed. He however does describe the Roc bird.

 

Al-Dimashqi (1325) Nukhbat ad-dahr

Although speaking a lot of Qumr; it is a total mix up between an Asian and African Qumr that adds no new facts. He also talks about the Roc.

 

Mosa Ibin Soza : (copyist; Madagascar) Sorabe

Mosa Ibin Soza compiled  this manuscript in 1911. There is a chance that its roots are very old as it talks about events  from the 11th century or older.

 

The History of Darafify. We do not even know the origin of Darafify. But what he did was remarkable. He lived in the region of Sakaleo (central part east coast) It is there at Abohitsara-Feonatara, that there is up to now a statue of a wild pig in stone. Darafify went upstream on the river Sakaleo. Close to Abohibe he stops and plants bananas in the water. After that he continues to go up the river till he sees a place where the water is deep enough to cover his hand. There he makes a stone mortar to make fanamo (fanamo de hamo ; poison from the branches of a bush, which is used mostly to make fish drunk, and so to catch them). When the stone mortar got finished, he makes the fanamo, and when the fanamo is finished, he throws it in the water. The fish in the river close to Ataravondrony got drugged that way. The big murene got also drugged and crawls up to the land. There was a hollow 'haramy' tree. The murene gets into it. But when the murene is inside it, someone cuts the tree. The murene got cut in two under the weight. When the tree falls, the murex leaves. Then she passes through the water of the Sakaleo and goes south. She passes a mountain and goes back down at Imananora. From then on its name changed : Tapakena. The big eel called tona and the fish called toho still exist there. If one touches the tail of this kind of eel, the water even nowadays still becomes red. The people of the village baked the tail and eat it. All those who did, died of it. Those who did not eat it, had to bury the dead. A 120 of them died. The graves in which they were buried are still there. The ones left over left to live in Abohibe. They lived in Abohibe for two months. Then a big storm comes over them. During the night the lightning de-places everybody. They find themselves at Marosiky and are called Zafindravaratry. This is the reason why the Zafindravaratry up to today do not eat the different species of eel. Darafify was more then 100 arms long. The oldest of his family was called Ramahasiza. Then there was Darafify, then Parinatsy, then Kidivanga. The footprints of Kidivanga are still visible till today on the rock. The stone mortar in which Darafify made the fanamo is still there. That is also the reason why the name of the river got changed into Sakaleo. Darafify got buried between Madoavolo and Sahapaky. The Madoavolo are the descendants of the people of Feonatara while the Sahapaky are the descendants of the Sahadrabo. It is there that they buried Darafify. To bury him, they folded him in two. The place where he is buried on the rice fields of Rasoabe his wife and on that of his second wife Soamasay is more then 50 refy long. They build a stone wall around Darafify.

 

Sorabe manuscript text + oral tradition

This tale is a mix up of many tales. Except of talking about Darafify it also talks about the murene, the eel and the establishment of the taboo on eating the animal. Also the tale of the displacement of the people. Note also that in the official version given in the school books, and which talks only about the dead of Darafify, it is not the tree who is cut by the man searching firewood, but Darafify's knee. He then falls in the water and dies.

The Darafify as he comes to us through this manuscript is the reincarnation of the ancestor-king arriving on the island and following a river upstream and installing himself inland. Darafify then becomes a being living in the water representing the ghosts of the old kings who according to tradition also live in the water. Big murene and eel are also considered animals in which the ghosts of ancestor kings dwell. 

When combining this text with what the oral tradition gives us we find that in the region north of Mananjary there is a written down, old oral tradition probably predating the eleventh century about giants called Darafify (red colored cheeks), Darofipy (cut stone) and Darafely Fatrapaitan (ana). They are at the same time mythical giants, cultural heroes and also a legendary people.

Darafify came from Arabia with a red bull bearing eight teats, which began Darafify's vast herds. He landed on the northern tip of the island and eventually worked his way down the east coast, performing various legendary feats along the way, including killing a giant snake (Hydra) that devoured men and cattle.

Moving down the coast from the northeast, they tried to escape their traditional profession of cattle herders. They became involved in trade that carried products from Madagascar to the world to the north. They also tried to acquire a monopoly on the east coast of the island where the most medical herbs are as well as perfumes and aromatics as well as where chlorite-schist is quarried and worked.

 

The names of these giants are made from a mixture of Austronesian, Sanskrit, and Persian. They all relate to trade in spices, perfumes and medical herbs.

Fi/m/py/fify: this word is now used in the present language of the island for powdered products from Murex species, bark and gum of Haematodendron and Mauloutchia sp. as well as wild pepper.

Fatra known as resin of the benjamin tree (Styrax benzoin). Of which we know that an amount was given as a gift to a purchaser of aromatics, as soon as a deal was made.

Another name used in the Sorabe; the (ha)ramy (Canarium madagascariense) is a tree known as Madagascar incense. The main product however (for export) must have been fimpy. The murex product used for export to the north.

 

There is  also the growing influence of foreign elements (African and Persian) in the still Austronesian culture of the time:

The two wives of Darafify: the sisters Rasoabe and Rasoamasay are given an aquatic funeral. The first wife is buried in a lake to the North, the second in a lake to the South. This indicates the firsts superiority. In other versions it is the two wifes who cry on the death of Darafify and the tears make the two lakes.

Later on however Darafify starts breaking with the old taboos. He beats (when moving down the coast) a confederation of princes symbolized by a giant Hydra (fanany) in which were living the souls of ancient princes. He desecrates the aquatic graves of former rulers.   

 

The Persian influence shows in his name: Darafify, Dara means date (red of color) in Persian. Nobody goes as far as to say he was Persian, maybe he was the equivalent of the Shirazi in East Africa. Who in that same epoque took over the rule of the Zanj coast. They built their strength on their relations with Persia.

 

Some authors go as far as to say that: the Darafify legend is a mythological history of the shirazi colonization of the island. Darafify personifies the shirazi who settled in Madagascar in the tenth century. His travels from north to south represent their migration along the same route, and the struggles with the giant snake and other opponents signify the shirazi's conflicts with local Malagasy along the way.

 

Note on fimpy. It is traded till today and since many centuries an export product from Madagascar. It is the opercula of sea snails that has been ground down and used as a fragrance since ancient times. The operculum is the fingernail-shaped trap-door at the entrance to the shell of a sea snail..

Ibn Masawaih in his treatise on simple aromatic substances and "The book of simple drugs", of Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Al-Ghafiqi (Medieval books) describe the application of incense produced by burning horny opercula for curing several illnesses. Inhalation of such fumes was promoted for curing stomach pains, liver illnesses, epilepsy and regulation of the menstrual cycle. For this purpose the use of opercula of the following species was recommended: Strombus tricornis, Lambis truncata sebae, Chicoreus ramosus, Chicoreus virgineus & Pleuroploca trapezium i.e. the opercula of the largest gastropods living in the waters bordering the Arabian Peninsula. The best opercula were said to come from Jeddah.

 

(Pseudo) Ibn Al Wardi (about 1456) Kharidat al aji ib (The Pearls of Wonders and the Uniqueness of Things Strange)

The land of Hind, this big country part of the continent extending north to south, its king has relations with the king of Zinj; In the sea is the country of Maharaj: The wars of colonisation by the Austronesians in East Africa are long time over and normal relations established.

 

Al Himyari: (1461) Kitab ar-rawd al Mi'tar (The Fragrant Garden)

Maljaman: A city in India is the home of the king of the Zabaj, and he is never engaged in the war of Zanjis who are within the limits of his protection because the Zabaj is connected to the al Zunuy (plural of Zanj) of Waqwaq and they are within a march of five months.

All other authors in the period before him have nothing new to say (only repetitions-so I left them out) about this colonisation of Madagascar now long time over.

 

Ibn Majid: (AD1462) : Hawiya al-ihtisar fi usul 'ilm al-bihar (Everything in short about the principles of the science of the seas.)

 

Chapter V:

The indications of the directions of the littoral of Arabia, Hedjaz(province of Mecca), Siam (present day Thailand) , the Gulf of Berbery (coast North of Mogadishu up to Yemen) , Somalia, of Mrima (East African coast facing Zanzibar), of Zang, the islands of Qumr, the end of the Sudan, of Kanem (in West Africa), after measurements and exact written documents.

Section 42 verses 87-138

The sailing directions to az-Zang is on the setting of Canopus(1). Hold it and deviate not.

This course is plain when the ship starts from latitude Polaris(2) five fingers and Sail towards Munfia (Mafia island Tanzania) and al-Ahwar (Here the Zanj coast).

But when the ship reaches the latitude of the plough ten fingers, the banks remove her away from that course.

If you have not experienced that place, the pilot alone can guide you to Sofala.

The lands ends at latitude five fingers of the plough(3).

No land can be found south of it, and the region of al-Qumr is far-off it.

They say: the Sagara harbour(Lorenzo Marques?) is the end of Habas’s (Ethiopia) mainland when the plough(3) is no more seen.

There is situated the course of the Nile of Egypt according to Ibn Hawqal(4), the vigorous and reference man.

May God exempt us and every Muslim from needing this dangerous and obscure place.

Some captains report strangely that from there towards the North West.

Stretch the islands of al-Magrib (the West) and the endemic area of the southern part of the Ocean Sea.

The sailing distance between them is big and lasts one month in strong winds.

They say that in old times the Greek ships used to go to Qumr.

Also they used to come to az-Zang mainland from India according to their authors.

Al-Qomr starts, in the north, with Great Bear (Ursa Major in the northern sky) at eleven fingers high, this is not idle talk;

I hear, brave one at Ras al-milh (salt cape)(13) as well known with the Arab as Persian (sailors). (Note here the reason of the double designation of certain ports with a local and an Arabic name).

Some have said that this cape has 12 fingers; but in setting it is really the Big Bear at 11 fingers.

Between the island and (the coast) in front there are 56 zam(5) without haggling.

And Angaziga (Grande Comore) between Qumr and the Swahili coast is the one of the islands that is most known, remember what I say.

There is also Dumuni (Anjouan) and also Mulali (Moheli) with Big Bear at eleven fingers, without mistake.

One also finds, Muwutu (Mayotte) at Big Bear at ten fingers and a half, here you have some of the most remarkable islands. Up to you to remember what I said.

Besides these islands a heap of others mark out the coast (of Qumr?), some have a name, and the others don't.

The most southern Cape of Qumr, is only known to the one who revealed the gospel.

And we did not gather on that issue nor sure figures, nor fingers in height, nor any mentions.

There is however, at its extreme North end with its harbors, the residence of the Sultan, (note: we will see later that this is Bimaruh/Vohemar) and its islands.

All commentaries will be given with the names of the harbors in another chapter and with all precision.

The route to Qumr is: course to the west (the rhumb)(Rhumb: a line or course on a single bearing) of Sirius and there, the sea is hard to handle.

During a recent talk, and with the exceptional interest I have, with the rare (guides) who can talk about it from experience,

I learned that the extreme south of Madagascar is at Big Bear at one finger high (in two manuscripts four fingers are given; which would be more correct, but he repeats the one finger a bid later and in a later work the Umda (Sulaiman al Mahri) Madagascar ends at three fingers for the Big Bear in a harbor called Hufa(27) or Hawfa) and that to get there the route is: course to the south-west at (the rhumb of) Canope(1).

Some among them say that, all the way, the course to keep is (to the west) on (the rumb of) Sirius(6), this is what appears, far-seeing friend.

The name of al-Qumr is taken from Qamiran son of Sem son of Noah(7), or second father.

In its big extent, Qumr known islands (in the east) in the extension of al-Fal (Laccadive + Maldives) locatable because of land-marks.

But also, surrounded by high seas and breaking waves, compared to the big island they are to the south.

Towards its south and at 12 zam(5) there are big islands (This may be an allusion to the Mascarene islands) as high as the heaven; (Reunion island with a 3069 meters high peak)  we do not know how high is the Big Bear there; we do not know to go to that wild uninhabited place (the Mascarene islands were uninhabited till 1646) what road to take in the sea, nor the distance.

In any case, we will inform you (about them) (the chapter on) the places of departure, then (the one on) the distances that they are separated, you who understands easily.

The merchants (and navigators) of Qumr know the coasts (of the high islands) themselves very well;

They bring from there, brother, ambergris, and that since ancient times.

Certain navigators have declared that (the coasts of) Qumr and (the land of) Zandj are parallel and don't separate further one from the other as long as the Big Bear is still visible.

None of those who have been taken there made sure that you absolutely make the wrong course if you always keep south between the two coasts.

On the other hand it is a channel with dangerous places, with very violent currents.

As Allah decides that a sailing boat reaches (the extreme south) in the ocean (Uqanus), with great risk for live and belongings.

The one mislaid has no other place to go then the coasts of al-Kanim(in West Africa), to the south of the Sudan and that know it well.

Navigator, it has also been said that the extreme south of Qumr, where Big Bear is at one finger height, there is the harbor of Kouri (26) (Bandar-Kouri 26), know this also!

The extreme north of Qumr, there where is Lulugan (15) (=Langany; Lulangane;on a little island, Majid calls it Langani in his later works) is with all evidence, at Big Bear, 10 fingers height,

In a bay that will be a safe place, because oriented to the south it stretches between two headlands, and remember well that I said.

I more in detail say that the Cape of Salt (13) is on Big Bear 11 fingers high and that Manzalagi (17) (= Old Masselage)  comes up at Big Bear 10 fingers, remember this. (Note the double designation the arbised one: Manzalagi situated opposite of the original Langani on the island). 

Navigator; they told us that the distance (east-west) of Qumr is 20 zam(5), it is that at least that the wise ones say.

Know also that all around Qumr there are only reefs and islands with Big Bear at seven fingers height and un-deep water,

take the course tack to port side at (the rumb of) Arcturus(8) and go till Big Bear arrives at 8 fingers for the one who observes from the ship.

See here how Qumr is shown; as to its heights in fingers I will tell in the 7th chapter. (Note: He did not)

 

Chapter VI

(two last verses)

In the west and east, in Arabia and in foreign countries, in al-Qumr and China.

This is the conclusion about the correct ones, and I left the obscure ones for the boasting liar.

 

Chapter VII:

The indications of the directions (meaning about the sea routes) of the islands and harbors of  which one leaves at al-Maharag(in Indonesia?), at Sumatra, at the Laccadive(9), at al-Qumr, in Yemen, in the coasts of Abyssinie in Somalia, to al-Atwah(10)(2), in Makran(coast Pakistan) and in the in between places and what needs to be reported, all following exact information and correctly written documents.

 

Chapter VII verses 135 to 144: (strangely enough no information is given for the traffic between Madagascar and the African mainland; only what courses to follow between 7 main harbors in Madagascar and the islands of Tiri-Raga (38.) (=one of the Mascarene)

(Paragraph with title:)The harbors from which to leave at the coast of Qumr.

When the coast of (east) appear of Qumr, your intension is to get through to the islands (of the east)

Put the course to Tiri-Raga (38) (=one of the Mascarene) following (the rumb of) Achernar, starting from a latitude equal to that of Sa'da (16); this is how my informer told me. (Note: this port of Sa'da; Sa'ada= happiness in Arab, means in the local language: fortress. And there are many places in the North called that way as this was the place where the Swahili started to colonize and the Arab and Persian traders landed).

Then the harbor Bani-Ismail (28), go my friend, to the east following ( the rumb of ) Canope.

From Mankar (32), take the course east on (the rumb of) Achernar(11) and Tiri-Raga (38) appears surely at your horizon.

From Haduda (33), with course east on (the rumb of) Scorpion(12) you will get there also, you who are broken from the routine. (Note except of this Haduda there is another one further south; Haduda means roaring of the sea).

But your route will be on (the rumb of) Altair(13)(=strait east) if you sail from the accesses to the harbor of Kus (34) (Bandar Kus), don't stop from learning. (Note: Kaws: headwind is in the Indian Ocean called Kus. it is the south-western monsoon. Many harbors are called Kus; Majid takes two.)

You reach, brother the island Tira-Riga (38) from Bandar Abya (35) (or Abaya) that is certain,

When keeping, friend, course to the east on (the rumb of) Arcturus. As well you reach from Kouri (26), (Note this might have been Kus instead) when taking course to the east on (the rumb of) Capella(14).

See here what are all the routes (on the east) of Qumr; it is up to you to understand well my verses.

If it were not, my brother, because of differences in the reports of my informers, we would have listed the double amount of noteworthy places.

 

Chapter VIII

Knowledge of the distances between the coast of Arabia and the ones of India, from the place where the height of the pole star 5 fingers is, to the place where it is 12 fingers. Enumerating the distances in zam(5) between the harbors situated on 4 principal latitudes comparing with what has been written about it; and starting from those distances all other distances in the sea can be calculated.

Verses 38-39

No exact distances for China and al-Maghreb could be found.

Nor two pilots agreed on and verified the sailing distances of al-Qumr.

Verses 61-65

From the al-Hadra island (Pemba island Tanzania) to Karam diwa(15), listen to my information,

There are less than 150 zams(5), even more according to other calculation.

From Karam diwa(15) to Sunda(16) in Java, they counted 130 zams.

Therefore, between the two islands of Java and al-Hadra,

we determine 300 zams less twenty zams in this case, in the opinion of the good pilot.

 

Chapter IX:

The determination of the height of the Polar star(17), the two Guards(18), and the Wagon(19) at the moment of the culmination of ? of the Lion(20), for all the known capes situated in the ocean and on the northern site; that is to say the Indian sea, the one of Siam, of Arabia, and of the Sawahil

Verses 28-29

But for Talang, Dang Dang Samutra, Mahkufang,

the shoal of Muqbil(21) off the country of az-Zang (1), measure the Guards(18) seven fingers and rely on it.

Verse 34

At Salt Zangi, Manqabuwa and Barawa(22), the Guards(18) are truly five fingers.

Verse 41

In the region around az-Zang (1), it (=the Guards) is septentriconal(meaning "of the north").

My description is enough to you, take my word.

Verse 46

The Guards at Mombasa and Zarrin(Seychelles) which is far 60 zams(5) in the high sea, and two fingers, be informed.

Verse 48 (also 2 fingers)

Garsik, Java, al-Hadra(Pemba island) whose name is mentioned, after Qari,

Verses 50-57

At Sarbaya, Fali island, Java, Manfiya(Mafia island) in the sand.

The Gread Bear is 12 fingers, it is proved. Understand my poetry which is like jewels.

At al-Harraba(23), Huriya(24), al-Milh’s head (13) also, o inquirer at Fayden, Sasi-Timor, some pilots say at Kilwa(Coast Tanzania), o crudite.

At Angaziga (=Grand Comore), Hanzuwani,(=Anjouan), Mulali (=Moheli), and Dumuni islands,

The Great Bear is in them all 11 fingers. Here at the end of al-Fal(Laccadive + Maldives), in the opinion of all pilots.

At Timor island(in Indonesia), and, in the opinion of al-Qumr pilots, at Bani Ismail(28) harbour, the Great Bear is 10 fingers.

So it is at Lulugan (15), al-Ahwar(10)(2), and at Sufala (6-7) as was reported, o master of the sea.

Verse 56-57

91/2 fingers at Sa’da (16) (West Madagascar) (I did not find the completer text of this verse)

Verse 58-60

9 fingers in Bimaruh (29) (=Vohemar) (East Madagascar) and Anamil (18) (according to Francois Vire this must be Kingany where an important archaeological site is at the entry of the Bay of Boeny), the harbor Darwis (3) (East Africa), and Manzalagi (17) (old Masselage) (West Madagascar). (I did not find the complete text of this verse)

Verse 61-62

8 fingers Gazira al Anbar (30) (Island of Ambergris, according to Francois Vire this is the island of Sainte Marie; In his other works Ibn Majid calls this place gazira al ayn but ayn might be anbar as this is close in Arabic) (East Madagascar); the harbor Sagagi (4), Musanbigi (5), (both East Africa) Bandar al Nub (19) (West Madagascar) (I did not find the complete text of this verse)

Verse 63-64

7 fingers in Nasim (31) (meaning breeze) (East Madagascar) Malawin (20) (West Madagascar) (I did not find the complete text of this verse)

Verse 65

The Great Bear is six at Sufala (6-7), the country of gold, this is my knowledge.

Verse 65-66

6 fingers in Mankar (32) (East Madagascar) Bandar Siban (21) (port of pitfalls) (West Madagascar) (I did not find the complete text of this verse)

Verse 67

5 fingers Bandar Haduda (33) (East Madagascar) Bandar Kuri (22) (West Madagascar) Rufati (8) (East Africa) (I did not find the complete text of this verse) (Note: Our author did not have precise information so we have two Kuri this one at five fingers is around the place of Morondava; the one at one fingers in the bay of Androka)

Verse 68

4 fingers Bandar Kus (34) (East Madagascar) Bandar Qasim (23) (at Morombe) (West Madagascar) Kandali (9) (Ibn Majid in his other works calls this Qanbara which is on the island of Bazaruto, the tallest of the paradise islands) (East Africa) (I did not find the complete text of this verse)

Verse 69

It is (3 fingers) at the harbors of Hant (24) (or Hayt, Hit), Tallini (10) (on the East African Coast), and Abya (35) in al-Qumr, o helper.

Verse 69-70

It is 3 fingers in the island of Tiri Raga (38) (East Madagascar) (I did not find the complete text of this verse)

Verse 71-72

It is 2 fingers in Haduda (36) (East Madagascar) Timaruh (25) (West Madagascar).

Verses 72-79

At Kus harbour (37) (East Madagascar), the deep of Gubba Kuri (26), (West Madagascar) and as Sagarah (11) (Lorenzo Marques?)famous harbour,

the Great Bear was measured one finger by the scientists. They see nothing else, understand.

If you measure at the end of ad-Damuti (12) (East Africa) by the Great Bear before it is late,

you obtain half a finger for the al-Anaq (Mizar)(25) and al-Gun (Alioth)(26). Canopus is not setting and fixed.

because this is the end of az-Zang Coast (1) and the strait leading to the West and al-Ifrang(27) country.

There is nothing to the south (of Africa) except reefs and darkness which the creator (alone) knows. Some say that there are islands and that the extreme end of the coast is 5 isba(fingers) (18deg 21 min S) - O thou, the best informed. But the stories of the authorities do not agree. We ask Allah to pardon our errors.

 

Chapter XI

Verses 78-79

How many times I had recourse to the Arab calculation and to the Indian Computation since I was young.

I didn’t see in the knowledge of the originals anything correctly copied about Qumr and Zang.

 

The numbers in red are found on the map of Madagascar added to the webpages of Ibn Majid (1462)

(1)Canopus, Canope: is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina and the second-brightest star in the night sky. The south celestial pole can be approximately located using Canopus and another bright star, Achernar, as the three make an equilateral triangle.

(2)Polaris: is a star in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Minor and is commonly called the North Star or Pole Star.

(3)plough: seven bright stars of the constellation Ursa Major.

(4)Ibn Hawqal: See my webpage Ibn Hawqal (970)

(5)Zam: = 12 nautical miles (one nautical mile= 1852m)

(6)Sirius: brightest star in the night sky in the constellation Canis Major (the Greater Dog).

(7)The name of al-Qumr is taken from Qamiran son of Sem son of Noah: In all other texts Qumr is named after the Khmer people (South-East Asia) colonising Madagascar or from The Mountain of Qumr the legendary sources of the Nile which was supposed to be close by. Note that Sem or Shem son of Noah is said to be the ancestor of all the black people.

(8)Arcturus: is the brightest star in the northern constellation of Boötes, the fourth-brightest in the night sky, and the brightest in the northern celestial hemisphere.

(9)Laccadive: group of three islands off the west coast of India.

(10) al-Atwah: means wilderness, place where whips get lost.

(11)Achernar: is the brightest star in the constellation of Eridanus.

(12)Scorpion: It's the brightest star in the zodiacal constellation Scorpius the Scorpion.

(13)Altair (=strait east): is the brightest star in the constellation of Aquila.

(14)Capella: sixth brightest star in the night sky and the brightest in the constellation Auriga.

(15)Karam diwa: southern part of Nicobar Islands (an archipelagic island chain) in India.

(16)Sunda in Java: the western part of the island of Java in Indonesia.

(17)Polar star: Polaris: is a star in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Minor and is commonly called the North Star or Pole Star.

(18)two Guards: Within the constellation Ursa Major, the stars Dubhe and Merak, which always point to the North Star, are "the guards of the ever-fixed pole."

(19)the Wagon: another name for the plough; a part of the Big Bear.

(20)Lion: in astronomy, zodiacal constellation lying in the northern sky between Cancer and Virgo

(21)shoal of Muqbil off the country of az-Zang: off the coast halfway between Ras Hafun and Mogadishu.

(22)Barawa: Brava on the south Somali coast; The Bedouna of Idrisi (1150).

(23)al-Harraba: the place of Pirates- several places bear this name (not East Africa). 

(24)Huriya: splendid paradise several places bear this name (not East Afrrica).

(25)al-Anaq (Mizar): star in the constellation of Ursa Major.

(26)and al-Gun (Alioth): the brightest star in the constellation of Ursa Major.

(27)al-Ifrang: Europeans , collectively known as Ifrang.

 

Madagascar in the Ancient Malayo-Polynesian Myths.

------------------------------------------------------------

Taken from: Madagascar in the Ancient Malayo-Polynesian Myths (pp. 25-60) by Keith Taylor

In Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft 1976

 

The indigenous myths concerning the discovery and settlement of Easter Island, and about Madagascar fit with the sea-oriented nomadic culture of the ancient Malayo-Polynesians (who settled in both places).

 

The myth concerning Easter Island, (by a native informant in 1934), contains four aspects which can be compared with the Malagasy myth; these are the reasons for migration, the procedure of discovery, the theme of fertility, and the concept of chieftainship. (Malagasy= language of Madagascar).

 

The Malagasy myth is found in several versions and fragments in a number of Arabic-Malagasy texts.

(These texts can be found in Gabriel Ferrand: Journal Asiatique, X serie, 15 (1910), pp. 281-330) (https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k93276b/f282.item) and in Flacourt's seventeenth century Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar. The Islamic elements of the myth are later accretions to the pre-existing myth.

 

Both the Easter Island and the Malagasy myths include the aspect of fraternal rivalry as reason for migration. In the Malagasy myth there is no question of an exploratory expedition. It can be assumed Madagascar was already well known to the migrating peoples.

 

About fertility. In (one text of) the Malagasy myth, the successful leader of the expedition gains ascendance over rival chiefs in other canoes by tricking them into throwing their infants into the sea to calm a tempest; he himself throws rocks overboard, thus insuring the posterity of his entourage.

 

Finally, the concept of chieftainship: the rivalry between the brothers Racoube and Rahazi in the Malagasy myth; Racoube and his entourage are followed by Rahazi, in fear of whom Racoube strikes inland once he reaches Madagascar and sets himself up in the mountains of the interior.

 

One element only of the Malagasy myth, is that both Racoube and Rahazi take a local princess as a consort and thus found a new royal house. Since it is generally agreed that the Island of Madagascar was uninhabited prior to the arrival of the Malayo-Polynesians, the existence of local princesses is further evidence that the Malagasy myth is in a tradition originating after contact was well established between Southeast Asia, the East African coast, and Madagascar.

 

The Arab manuscripts (especially Ibn Said 1250) also have an Malagasy migration myth. The Chinese and the Qumr lived together on the mainland of Asia until discord and division resulted in the Qumr being chased to the island regions under king Kamrin. After a time, discords and divisions arose, and the faction not belonging to the royal family took to the sea and migrated to the Island of Qumr (Madagascar). Further discords and divisions resulted in many of them migrating to the East African coast and hinterland where they gave their name to the mountains at the source of the Nile.

 

The Arab story concerning the origins of the Qumr and their association with the African continent fits a significant Malayo-Polynesian penetration of the continent itself.

 

Linguistic evidence indicates that the earliest habitation of Madagascar was on its west coast. This

favors the view that the Malayo-Polynesians did not come directly to Madagascar from Southeast Asia but rather reached the island subsequent to their exploration of the East African coast. Three further factors discount a direct route to Madagascar. First, the Mascarenes Islands to the east of Madagascar were bereft of any evidence of human habitation at the time of the discovery by Europeans. Second, the outrigger canoe is not found on the east coast of Madagascar. Third, the south-east monsoon would tend to encourage a more northerly route.